...
Determining
...
the
...
Cause
...
of
...
Surface
...
Foam
...
Experiments
Experimental Set-Up
...
In
...
an
...
attempt
...
to
...
recreate
...
surface
...
foam
...
in
...
a
...
lab
...
setting,
...
similar
...
to
...
that
...
found
...
in
...
AguaClara
...
Plants
...
in
...
Honduras,
...
we
...
first
...
had
...
to
...
recreate
...
a
...
similar
...
design
...
in
...
the
...
lab.
...
We
...
did
...
so
...
by
...
first
...
having
...
a
...
tank
...
which
...
mixed
...
tap
...
water
...
and
...
clay
...
in
...
order
...
to
...
have
...
a
...
constant
...
turbidity
...
of
...
approximately
...
100
...
NTU.
...
This
...
tank
...
represented
...
the
...
incoming
...
plant
...
water.
...
Water
...
from
...
this
...
tank
...
was
...
then
...
mixed
...
with
...
Natural
...
Organic
...
Matter
...
(NOM)
...
and
...
sent
...
into
...
Tank
...
2
...
which
...
simulated
...
the
...
rapid
...
mix
...
tank
...
and
...
first
...
baffle
...
of
...
the
...
flocculation
...
tank.
...
Once
...
in
...
this
...
tank,
...
the
...
turbidity
...
of
...
the
...
water
...
was
...
once
...
again
...
measured,
...
and
...
alum
...
was
...
dripped
...
onto
...
the
...
surface
...
of
...
the
...
water.
...
The
...
water
...
in
...
the
...
rapid
...
mix
...
side
...
of
...
tank
...
2
...
was
...
mixed
...
with
...
a
...
stirrer
...
before
...
traveling
...
into
...
the
...
first
...
baffle
...
portion
...
of
...
the
...
tank.
...
It
...
was
...
here
...
that
...
the
...
water
...
was
...
able
...
to
...
settle
...
a
...
bit
...
and
...
a
...
webcam
...
took
...
pictures
...
of
...
the
...
surface
...
water
...
every
...
two
...
minutes
...
to
...
determine
...
if
...
surface
...
foam
...
was
...
created.
...
When
...
an
...
aerator
...
was
...
added,
...
it
...
was
...
placed
...
in
...
the
...
first
...
baffle
...
portion
...
of
...
tank
...
2.
...
In
...
order
...
to
...
calculate
...
the
...
energy
...
dissipation
...
rate
...
at
...
the
...
rapid
...
mix
...
due
...
to
...
the
...
tubing,
...
first
...
we
...
calculated
...
the
...
head
...
loss
...
(h)
...
of
...
the
...
tubing
...
using
...
the
...
equation,
...
| Latex |
|---|
\large
$$
h = \left( {{Q \over {ka}}} \right)^2 {1 \over {2g}}
$$ |
...
Then we calculated the residence time (θ)
...
using,
| Latex |
|---|
} \large $$ \theta = {{d_{tube} } \over v} $${latex} |
Where,
...
| Latex |
|---|
...
\large
$$
v = {Q \over a}
$$ |
...
Finally energy dissipation (ε)
...
was
...
calculated
...
using
...
the
...
following
...
equation,
| Latex |
|---|
} \large $$ \varepsilon = {{gh} \over \theta } $${latex} |
Where:
...
h=
...
the
...
head
...
loss
...
due
...
the
...
tube,
...
Q
...
=
...
is
...
the
...
flow
...
rate
...
in
...
mL/min
...
a
...
=
...
the
...
area
...
of
...
the
...
tube
...
k
...
=
...
constant
...
magnitude
...
of
...
0.6
...
g
...
=
...
gravity
...
θ
...
=
...
the
...
residence
...
time
...
d
...
tube
...
=
...
the
...
length
...
of
...
energy
...
dissipation
...
of
...
the
...
jet,
...
which
...
was
...
estimated
...
on
...
the
...
length
...
scale
...
of
...
the
...
diameter
...
of
...
the
...
tubing.
...
V
...
=
...
speed
...
the
...
flow
...
ε
...
=
...
energy
...
dissipation
...
We
...
obtained
...
the
...
same
...
order
...
of
...
magnitude
...
for
...
energy
...
dissipation
...
as
...
the
...
AguaClara plants. Â
| Wiki Markup |
|---|
plants. \\ {float:right\|border=2px solid black\|width=300px} \!Experimental_Design_Setup!AguaClara experiment setup.jpg\|width=300px, align=centre\center! h5. Illustration of Experimental Setup {float} |
Our
...
experiment
...
included
...
the
...
following
...
parameters:
...
Coagulant(Alum)
...
dosage,
...
concentration
...
of
...
Natural
...
Organic
...
Matter
...
(NOM),
...
location
...
of
...
alum
...
addition,
...
aeration
...
of
...
water
...
and
...
addition
...
of
...
a
...
surfactant.
...
In
...
the
...
first
...
week
...
of
...
our
...
experiment,
...
we
...
tested
...
for
...
alum
...
dosage
...
in
...
order
...
to
...
determine
...
whether
...
it
...
caused
...
foam
...
formation.
...
Alum
...
dosages
...
of
...
35
...
mg/L,
...
45
...
mg/L,
...
55
...
mg/L
...
and
...
65
...
mg/L
...
were
...
added
...
to
...
the
...
rapid
...
mix
...
chamber.
...
The
...
following
...
week
...
the
...
group
...
used
...
Humic
...
Acid
...
in
...
order
...
to
...
determine
...
the
...
effects
...
of
...
NOM
...
on
...
surface
...
foam
...
formation.
...
Varying
...
the
...
dosage
...
at
...
1mg/L,
...
2mg/L,
...
5
...
mg/L
...
and
...
10
...
mg/L,
...
Humic
...
acid
...
was
...
mixed
...
in
...
the
...
rapid
...
mix
...
chamber
...
with
...
45
...
mg/L
...
of
...
alum.
...
After
...
deciding
...
to
...
add
...
an
...
aerator,
...
we
...
kept
...
the
...
parameters
...
the
...
same
...
as
...
in
...
the
...
NOM
...
experiments,
...
however
...
we
...
added
...
an
...
aerator
...
to
...
the
...
first
...
baffle
...
portion
...
of
...
tank
...
2.
...
Finally
...
to
...
study
...
the
...
effect
...
of
...
hydraulic
...
jump
...
on
...
bubble
...
formations,
...
we
...
varied the
...
height
...
of
...
the
...
water
...
fall
...
at
...
12.4cm,
...
14cm,
...
and
...
15.4
...
cm. We used these heights because they were approximately equal to the distance that water would be falling in the LFOM.
After determining both the cause of the foam and theoretical ways to prevent the water from aerating, our next task was to produce designs for retrofitting the current AguaClara plants in operation.
Results & Discussion
Our first experiment sought to determine whether overdosing alum could aid in the formation of surface foam. After dosing the water with varying alum concentrations, it was determined through observation that no foam was formed.
Although the foam was not formed, this information was crucial to our research. Not only did it minimize the list of potential foam formation factors, it also help build our understanding of foam formation. As a result of foam not forming due to alum addition at the surface of the water, we also were able to rule out alum addition under the water surface as intuitively it was a solution to the form formation.
Our second experiment sought to determine whether or not the addition of Natural Organic Matter (NOM) contributed to the formation of surface foams. At all concentrations of Humic Acid, we again found there was no surface foam formed. Although the NOM did lower the surface tension better enabling bubbles to form, we believe they did not form due to a lack of air bubbles which naturally are found in AguaClara plants. As a result, we modified our experiment to include an aerator to provide them.
In our next experiment, we again varied the concentration of NOM but included an aerator to provide bubbling directly into what would be the first baffle spacing. At concentrations below 2 mg/mL we found that no foam was formed. However at higher concentrations of Humic Acid, we found that large bubbles would rise and then quickly pop in the center of the tank. In the meantime, smaller bubbles would form around the edges of the tank and were slightly more persistent as seen in Figure 2.
| Wiki Markup |
|---|
{float:left +(Did you try much greater heights and much smaller heights to observe a difference?)+ After determining both the cause of the foam and theoretical ways to prevent the water from aerating, our next task was to produce designs for retrofitting the current AguaClara plants in operation. h3. Results & Discussion Our first experiment sought to determine whether -or not alum was the sole factor in the- +overdosing alum could aid in the+ formation of surface foam. After dosing the water with varying alum concentrations, it was determined through photographs and observation that no foam was formed. Sample photos are included in Figure 1. {float:right\|border=2px solid black\|width=300px} \!Figure 1.JPG\|width=300px,align=centre\! h5. Figure 1: No surface foam formed solely through alum dosing {float} Although the foam was not formed, this data was crucial to our research. Not only did it minimize the list of potential foam formation factors, it also help build our understanding of foam formation. As a result of foam not forming due to alum addition at the surface of the water, we also were able to rule out alum addition under the water surface as intuitively it was a solution to the form formation. Our second experiment sought to determine whether or not the addition of Natural Organic Matter (NOM) contributed to the formation of surface foams. At all concentrations of Humic Acid, we again found there was no surface foam formed. Although the NOM did lower the surface tension better enabling bubbles to form, we believe they did not form due to a lack of air bubbles which naturally are found in AguaClara plants. As a result, we modified our experiment to include an aerator to provide them. In our next experiment, we again varied the concentration of NOM but included an aerator to provide bubbling directly into what would be the first baffle spacing. At concentrations below 2 mg/mL we found that no foam was formed. However at higher concentrations of Humic Acid, we found that large bubbles would rise and then quickly pop in the center of the tank. In the meantime, smaller bubbles would form around the edges of the tank and were slightly more persistent as seen in Figure 2. {float:left\|border=2px solid black\|width=300px} \!Figure 2.JPG\foam.jpg|width=300px, align=centre\center! h5. Figure 2: Surface foam as a result of Humic Acid Addition {float} |
Bubbles
...
form
...
when
...
water
...
molecules
...
form
...
bonds
...
around
...
air
...
pockets.
...
A
...
surfactant
...
is
...
generally
...
an
...
organic
...
molecule
...
that
...
has
...
both
...
hydrophobic
...
and
...
hydrophilic
...
ends.
...
While
...
surfactants
...
reduce
...
the
...
surface
...
tension
...
of
...
water
...
they
...
also
...
form
...
micelles
...
in
...
water
...
which
...
helps
...
to
...
stabilize
...
air
...
bubbles
...
and
...
prevent
...
them
...
from
...
aggregating.
...
The
...
concentration
...
at
...
which
...
surfactants
...
begin
...
to
...
form
...
micelles
...
is
...
known
...
as
...
the
...
...
...
...
or
...
CMC. Although the addition of humic acid did reduce the aggregation of air bubbles it still occurred. This resulted in large, non persistent air bubbles that formed a foam at the surface of the water. This may be attributed to not reaching the CMC, however using higher concentrations of humic acid would not accurately replicate plant conditions.
Although, a surface foam was formed at concentrations of Humic Acid greater than 2 g/mL, it was not the foam that is found in AguaClara plants. The foam we created in lab contained large non-persisent bubbles, however the foam we sought to create contained small persistent bubbles similar to natural foams found in rivers and lakes. At this point we began searching for a stronger surfactant to further prevent the aggregation of bubbles, thus replicating the foam found in Honduran AguaClara plants.
In order to support our hypothesis, we added soap to our last experiment with Humic Acid simply to see if would create the surface foam we wanted. We added soap because its molecular composition is similar to that of fatty acid surfactants found in nature. We found that the soap caused a persistent foam, similar to that found in AguaClara plants and can be seen in Figure 3 below.
| Wiki Markup |
|---|
{float:right Humic acid is a weak surfactant, so though it did reduce the aggregation of air bubbles it still occurred. This resulted in large, non persistent air bubbles that formed a foam at the surface of the water. +(Explain what you mean by weak and strong surfactant. If humic acid is a surfactant is there a CMC where it will form persistent bubbles?)+ Although, a surface foam was formed at concentrations of Humic Acid greater than 2 g/mL, it was not the foam that is found in AguaClara plants. The foam we created in lab contained large non-persisent bubbles, however the foam we sought to create contained small persistent bubbles similar to [natural foams found in rivers and lakes|http://www.in.gov/idem/files/wqsurvey_025surfacefoam.pdf]. At this point we began searching for a stronger surfactant to further prevent the aggregation of bubbles, thus replicating the foam found in Honduran AguaClara plants. In order to support our hypothesis, we added soap to our last experiment with Humic Acid simply to see if would create the surface foam we wanted. Indeed the soap caused a persistent foam, similar to that found in AguaClara plants and can be seen in Figure 3 below. +(Explain how soap could be similiar to fatty acid surfactants in nature)+ {float:right\|border=2px solid black\|width=300px} \!Figure 3.JPG\foamwewant.jpg|width=300px, align=centre\center! h5. Figure 3: Surface foam after the addition of Dial soap {float} |
In
...
our
...
bucket
...
without
...
holes
...
experiment,
...
we
...
found
...
that
...
at
...
heights
...
less
...
than
...
14cm
...
we
...
can
...
prevent
...
a
...
hydraulic
...
jump.
...
A
...
hydraulic
...
jump
...
normally
...
causes
...
a
...
significant
...
loss
...
of
...
energy
...
and
...
the
...
production
...
of
...
turbulence
...
often
...
resulting
...
in
...
the
...
entrainment
...
of
...
air.
...
This
...
experiment
...
helps
...
us
...
determine
...
an
...
ideal
...
height
...
for
...
our
...
cup
...
design.
...
Although we have eliminated this cup design (see retrofit designs page for details), if we were to continue looking into this theory it would be beneficial to start by testing smaller hydraulic jumps.